Select one of the three research categories:
History and Development of the Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory (AAPI) and the Nurturing Parenting Programs®.
In 1978, Dr. Bavolek developed the Adolescent Parenting Inventory (API) as a doctoral student at Utah State University. The Adolescent Parenting Inventory (API) was designed to assess the parenting beliefs and practices of abused and non-abused adolescents. Responses to the API would indicate the risk level of pre-parent teens in replicating the abusive and neglecting parenting practices they experienced during the process of growing up.
Critical to the study was identifying the parenting practices that represent child maltreatment. In essence, what are the practices of child abuse and neglect? Five specific behaviors were identified and validated from the on-going research with abused and non-abused teens. The constructs of child maltreatment are:
The research findings of the study indicated that teens with verified histories of abuse and neglect did indeed express significantly (P <.001) more abusive parenting beliefs in all five constructs than teens without verified histories of maltreatment. Gender also indicated significant (P < .001) differences. Males as a population expressed more abusive parenting practices than females.
Research studies continued in assessing risk levels of adult and teen parent populations. Teen parents and adult parents charged with child abuse and/or neglect did indeed express significantly (P<.001) more abusive parenting beliefs and practices than adult and teen parents without verified charges of maltreatment.
Today, the Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory (AAPI-2) is widely utilized both nationally and internationally, having assessed nearly 3 million adults and teens since its initial development in 1978.
In 1980, the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) funded a half-million dollar, six state research project to Dr. Stephen Bavolek while he was at the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire. The purpose of the research was to develop and validate a proven program to treat and prevent child abuse and neglect. The grant was awarded to Dr. Bavolek for his years of research in developing and validating the Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory (AAPI-2).
The Nurturing Parenting Program® (NPP) was developed and validated in 1983 utilizing the five parenting constructs of the AAPI to form the foundation of the lessons of the Nurturing Parenting Program®. In this manner, the AAPI provided the level of risk assessment and the Nurturing Parenting Program® provided the treatment. The NIMH study showed remarkable and significant changes in positive family interactions. Findings of the three year project included:
Important to recognize that in the mid-1980s, no valid or published parenting programs were available for families charged with child maltreatment. The Nurturing Parenting Program® was the first family-based program designed specifically for parents who were identified as abusive and/or neglecting of their children (treatment) or who were high risk for child maltreatment (prevention/intervention).
Based on the findings of the initial NIMH study, the Nurturing Parenting Program® for School Age Children was recognized by the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP), the Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (CSAP), and Substance Abuse, Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), and other government and state agencies as an evidence-based program; the only parenting program for the treatment of child abuse and neglect.
In November 2000,OJJDPdevoted an entire issue of their Newsletter to the quality of the Nurturing Parenting Program as a proven treatment program. Years later, the California Evidence Based Clearinghouse (CEBC) also recognized the research and findings of the Nurturing Parenting Programs® as evidence-based programs.
The National Registry of Evidence-based Programs and Practices (NREPP) developed as a branch of SAMHSA also recognized the research findings and the effectiveness of the Nurturing Programs® as evidence-based programs. Over the years, thirty-five additional programs and studies have been conducted. The results of these studies are available on line attesting to the effectiveness of the Nurturing Parenting Programs®. Links are provided to NREPP web site and to the Summary Research Report of the Nurturing Programs, and to the CEBC web site.
The field of parenting education, particularly as it pertains to providing parenting education to families charged with child abuse and neglect, is witnessing a dramatic change in what is being recognized as an evidence-based program.In conducting research to support the effectiveness of a program, there are essentially two categories of research design that are acceptable in the field: Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research. The design most used in experimental studies is called Randomized Control Trial (RCT).
A book written in the 1960s by Donald T. Campbell and Julian C. Stanley called Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research remains a classic in the field. According to Stanley and Campbell, RCTs are best used to test the efficacy or effectiveness of various types of medical interventions within a patient population. The key feature of the RCT is subjects for the study are assessed for eligibly and recruitment. Assessment of study subjects is an attempt to control for differences. After each subject is assessed, those who are accepted for suitability are randomly assigned to two groups:
Quasi-experimental research designs have a history of extensive use in social services. The most common quasi-experimental research designs are simple pre-posttest, posttest only, pre-posttest comparison groups, and pre-posttest comparison groups with longitudinal follow up. All four of these models are very acceptable research designs, especially when measuring the effectiveness of a treatment, or parenting program.
The California Evidence Based Clearinghouse (CEBC) along with the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) are two organizations that have changed their criteria for what constitutes “strong evidence supporting the efficacy of a program.” Both have adopted the RCT as their primary research model and their criteria for receiving the highest possible rating. CEBC has also included that the study’s results be published in a peer review journal with a time contingent of two years which helps determine if the study is acceptable for evidence based recognition.
Prior to this change, the Nurturing Parenting Programs® were highly rated, evidence-based programs for families receiving services in Child Welfare. After the adoption of the RCT model as evidence of programs effectiveness the Nurturing Program for Parents and their Infants, Toddlers and Preschoolers® is no longer afforded that designation.
RCT is reserved for trials that contain control groups in which groups receiving the experimental treatment are compared with control groups receiving no treatment. Withholding services from families who are mandated by the courts to complete parent education is ethically inappropriate, in addition to jeopardizing the health and lives of children.
In 1980-83 when the first Nurturing Parenting Program® was developed and validated, there were no proven and published programs for families charged with child maltreatment. In essence, there was nothing to compare the results of families attending the Nurturing Program®. Families involved with Social Services for child maltreatment were not receiving parenting education from a validated, evidence-based parenting program. There were not any validated parenting programs on the market. A decision was made to run a quasi-experimental pre-posttest, longitudinal research design instead to test the effectiveness of the Nurturing Program®. The results were phenomenal.
Since the validation for the first Nurturing Parenting Program for Parents and their School age Children®, twenty additional Nurturing Programs have been developed and validated using the pre-posttest longitudinal follow-up quasi-experimental design. See the NPP validation report.
In the pre-posttest, longitudinal design research model, the criteria for effectiveness are the proven cessation of child maltreatment and the elimination of recidivism. It did not matter if the NPP was any better than no program if the child abuse continued. In essence, the effectiveness of the NPP was measured against the practices of maltreatment. Were the practices of maltreatment replaced with the practices of Nurturing Parenting? And what was the recidivism rate among parent(s) completing the NPP? The stated goal was a recidivism rate of 0. The outcome was a recidivism rate of 9%. At the time, the recidivism rate among families completing treatment for child abuse was between 25% to 47%.
Family Development Resources has been providing cost-effective, validated approaches to help treat and prevent child abuse and neglect for over 35 years. Families learn new attitudes and skills that reduce dysfunction in families, with follow-up studies indicating low rates of recidivism. The Nurturing Programs® have and will continue to make a significant contribution to the overall health and functioning of families.
The ratings remain very high for the Infant, Toddler and Preschooler Program as well as all the Nurturing Programs® as published in the National Registry of Evidence Based Programs and Practices (NREPP), the US Department for Defense and the hundreds of service providing agencies across the country.
Family Development Resources at 800.688.5822 or email us at fdr@nurturingparenting.com
Q. Who is NREPP and what do the letters represent?*
Answer: OK now follow along closely because it gets a bit confusing:
Q. What does “Evidence-Based” mean?
Answer: As defined by SAMHSA (Substance Abuse & Mental Health Services Administration) a program of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, in the health care field, evidence-based practice (also called EBP) generally refers to approaches to prevention or treatment that are validated by some form of documented scientific evidence. What counts as evidence can vary. The Nurturing Parenting Programs are all evidence-based programs.
Q. Are there any concerns or limitations to EBPs?
Answer: One concern often stated in the health care, mental health, and social work fields is too much emphasis on EBPs in some cases restrict practitioners from exercising their own judgment to provide the best care and treatment for individuals. For this reason, many organizations have adopted definitions of evidence-based practice that emphasize balancing the “scientific” with the “practical.”
Q. What does “fidelity to the model” mean?
Answer: Fidelity to the model occurs when implementers of research-based programs or interventions closely follow the protocols and techniques that are defined as part of the intervention. For example, conducting assessments and evaluations using the recommended or provided tools. Flexibility to fidelity occurs when differences among ethnic, racial, and/or linguistic groups and awareness of how people’s cultural background, beliefs, traditions, socioeconomic status, history, and other factors affect their needs and how they respond to services.
Q. Nurturing Programs are listed in NREPP under the category “Legacy Programs”. What does that mean and why did Nurturing and a few other programs get labeled as Legacy?
Answer: Between 1997 and 2004, programs were reviewed by SAMHSA and were rated Effective and/or Promising. After 2004, the rating criteria changed because the standard of “effectiveness” changed. Programs that were rated between 1997 and 2004 retained the label Legacy, referring to their measured effectiveness nearly 15 years ago.
*Information generated to reply to the aforementioned questions was taken from the 1/28/ 2010 NREPP and SAMHSA newsletter.
Q. Is the NPP curricula trauma-Informed?
Answer: Many trauma cases require counseling and/ or therapy from intense and long term to moderate and short term. Nurturing program are psycho-educational in their approach and can be used in conjunction with other services to help individuals suffering the effects of trauma. As a stand alone, the Nurturing Programs would not suitable as a treatment for individuals suffering from severe traumatic experiences.
Q. Explain the AAPI, NSCS and PARTI and how they interact with each other.
Answer: The Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory (AAPI) assess an individual's attitudes about raising children.
The Nurturing Skills Competency Scale (NSCS) provides a comprehensive profile of the individuals' present quality of life in addition to the quality of their childhood, the quality of their of the relationship with their children and with their adult partner. The NSCS also assesses an individuals' knowledge of parenting practices and the frequency in which the parents are utilizing these practices.
The Parenting Attitudes of Raising Teens Inventory (PARTI) assess the similarities and differences parents and their adolescents have regarding the life style of being a teen. Adolescence is a very fun but difficult period of development for many families. Differences in opinions, demands, dating, sexual activity, and independence often result in strained parent and teen relationships. The PARTI is a 40 item inventory designed to bring to awareness the similarities and differences parents and teens have as they both learn the skills of negotiation and compromise aimed at increasing the positive qualities of their relationship.
Q. Do the Nurturing Parenting Programs adhere to the Protective Factors? What are the protective factors?
Answer: The six Protective Factors developed by the Center for the Study of Social Policy (CSSP) is a research-informed, cost-effective strategy to increase family stability, enhance child development and reduce child abuse and neglect.. The six protective factors and integrated into the lessons of each of the Nurturing Programs. The six factors include: 1. Nurturing and Attachment; 2. Knowledge of Parenting and Youth Development; 3. Parental Resilience; 4. Social Connections; 5. Concrete Supports for Parents; Social and Emotional Competence of Children. The Nurturing Programs incorporate all of the Protective Factors in the lessons in each of the major Nurturing Programs.
Randomized Controlled Trial is a controlled trial study in which participants are assigned to a study group. In a randomized controlled trial, participants are assigned to treatment conditions at random. Procedures are controlled to ensure that all participants in all study groups are treated the same except for the factor that is unique to their group. The unique factor is the type of intervention they receive.
The primary goal of conducting an RCT is to test whether an intervention works by comparing it to a control condition, usually either no intervention or an alternative intervention.
Cherry, K, Cooper, C, Cross-Hemmer, A, Duong, T, Furrer, C, Green, B, Rockhill, A, Rodgers, A, "Executive Summary: Oregon's IV-E Waiver Demonstration Project." Relationship-Based Visitation & Parent Mentor Evaluations. Center for the Improvement of Child and Family Services Portland State University. December 2015
Cherry, K, Cooper, C, Cross-Hemmer, A, Duong, T, Furrer, C, Green, B, Rockhill, A, Rodgers, A, "Oregon's IV-E Waiver Demonstration Project: Final Evaluation Report." Relationship-Based Visitation & Parent Mentor Evaluations. Center for the Improvement of Child and Family Services Portland State University. December 2015
Illinois Birth Through Three Waiver: "Developmentally Informed Child and Family Interventions IB3." Semiannual Progress Report. Prepared for the Children's Bureau, Submitted by the Illinois Department of Children and Family Services. July 31, 2015
Pre-Post is essentially administering the AAPI and NSCS before a Nurturing Parenting Program begins and when it ends to measure statistically significant gains made by the parents. This is a basic research design.
Geoffrey Zehnacker, B.A., Sean E. Brotherson, Ph.D., & Amy Tichy, B.A. North Dakota State University – Fargo, ND. “Nurturing Parenting Program in North Dakota. Project Overview and Year-End Report for 2016-2017.” March 2018
Daire, Andrew P., Greenridge, Wendy L., The University of Central Florida “A Cross Cultural Investigation of the Nurturing Father’s Program Outcomes.”
Daire, Andrew P., Greenridge, Wendy L., Johnson, Nicola, The University of Central Florida “Parental Attitudes and Behaviors of Participants in the Nurturing Father’s Program.” 2014
Bavolek, S., Keene, R., Miranda, G., Radcliff, J. Prevention and Early Intervention Component of Imperial County, “Implementation of the Nurturing Parenting Programs with Latino Families in Imperial County, California.” 3 year report. June 2009 - July 2012. January 4, 2013
International Rescue Committee, Research and Validation, “Family based intervention against child abuse and neglect for young parents involved in a youth and livelihoods program in Liberia: A Pilot project to build evidence around the potential for parenting skills training to protect children from abuse, neglect and exploitation.” International Rescue Committee. www.rescue.org. New York, NY. November 2011
Montañez, M., Devall, E., VanLeeuwen, D., “Social Capital: Strengthening Mexican-American Families Through Parenting Education” Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences, 102, NO. 3, 2010
Bavolek, S.J., "Nurturing the Families of Hawaii: Program to Build Nurturing Parenting Skills for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect." Final Report for FY 2008-09 submitted to Department of Human Services, Honolulu, HI. August, 2009
Bavolek, S.J., "Nurturing the Families of Hawaii: Three Year Program to Build Nurturing Parenting Skills for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect." Final Report for FY 2005-08 submitted to the Department of Human Services, HI. February, 2009
Houston, N., "Evaluation of a Family-Centered Parenting Program for Culturally Diverse High-Risk Families." Nova Southeastern University. January, 2008
Devall, E., “Positive Parenting for High-Risk Families.” Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences, 96(4), 2004
Welinske, D., “Solano County California Family Strengthening Program” Final Report, 2003
Matlak, S., “A quantitative Analysis of Pikes Peak Family Connections Nurturing Parenting Program” Research Report, 2003
Vespo, J.E., Capece, D., Behforooz, B., “Effects of the Nurturing Curriculum (Developing Nurturing Skills K-12 School-Based Curricula®) on Social, Emotional, and Academic Behaviors in Kindergarten Classrooms” Abstract, 2002
Cowen, P.S., “Effectiveness of a Parent Education Intervention for At-Risk Families.” Journal of the Society for Pediatric Nursing, 6 (2), 73-82, 2001
Baxter, R. & Chara, K., “The Nurturing Parenting Program: Evidence for the Success of a Parenting Program” Research Report, 1995
Alvy, K. & Steele, M., “AT&T sponsored Nurturing Parenting Program for Teen Parents” Research Report, 1992
Bavolek, S.J., Henderson, H.L., and Shultz, B.B., “Reducing Chronic Neglect in Utah” Research Report, 1987
Bavolek, S.J., “Building Nurturing Parenting Skills in Teen Parents: A Validation of the Nurturing Program for Teen Parents” Research Report, 1987
Bavolek, S.J., “Validation of the Nurturing Program for Parents and Adolescents: Building Nurturing Interactions in Families Experiencing Parent-Adolescent Conflict” Research Report, Winter 1987
Comparative studies compares the effectiveness of the Nurturing Parenting Program with another program to determine which program received better gains.
Vespo, J.E., Capece, D., Behforooz, B, “Effects of the Nurturing Curriculum on Social, Emotional, and Academic Behaviors in Kindergarten Classrooms” Journal of Research in Childhood Education 2006, Vol. 20, No. 4
Bavolek, S.J., Keene, R., Weikert, P., “The Florida Study: A Comparative Examination of the Effectiveness of the Nurturing Parenting Programs” Research Report, 2005
Pre-Post with Longitudinal Follow-Up assesses whether the gains made at posttest have been maintained by either administering a third AAPI at test for differences from posttest to longitudinal testing usually anywhere from 6 months to 2 years after the last class ended.
The key to this model is to determine if families have been re-charged with Child Abuse or Neglect since they ended their program. The goal of Nurturing Parenting Program is to stop the re-abuse of children in families who completed the Nurturing Parenting Program.
Birth & Beyond Home Visitation Program, "AmeriCorps Impact Evaluation." Sacramento Family Support Collaborative, December 2015.
Brock, Donna-Jean P., Marek, Lydia I., Matteo-Kerney, Cheryl, Bagby, Tammy, “Open Groups: Adaptations in Implementing a Parent Training Program” 2013.
Birth & Beyond Home Visitation Program, Nurturing Parenting Program Child Protective Services, Outcomes Report, July 2010 through June 2013, “The 2010-2013 Outcomes Study for the Birth & Beyond Program has retained the same methodology used each year, with variations and enhancements as resources permitted.” Family Support Collaborative. Child Abuse Prevention Council of Sacramento, North Highlands, Ca. October 2013. Submitted by: LPC Consulting Associates, Inc., Sacraments Ca. 95811
Maher, E. J., Marcynyszyn, L. A., Corwin, T. W., & Hodnett, R. (2011). Dosage matters: The relationship between participation in the Nurturing Parenting Program for Infants, Toddlers, and Preschoolers and subsequent child maltreatment. Children and Youth Services Review, 33, 1426-1434. DOI: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2011.04.014
Maher, E. J., Corwin, T. W., Hodnett, R., & Faulk, K. (in-press). A cost-savings analysis of a statewide parenting education program in child welfare. Research on Social Work Practice.
Hodnett, R.H., Faulk, K., Dellinger, A,, Maher, E, Evaluation of the Statewide Implementation of a Parent Education Program in Louisiana’s Child Welfare Agency, 2009
Palusci, V.J., Crum, P., Bliss, R. & Bavolek, S.J., Changes in Parenting Attitudes and Knowledge Among Inmates and Other At-Risk Populations After a Family Nurturing Program, Children and Youth Services Review 2007, doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2007.06.006
Matteo-Kerney, C., Benjamin, S. “Rural Virginia Family Nurturing Project: Five Year Evaluation Results”, Abstract 2003
Safe Child, Raleigh NC, “An Evaluation of the Nurturing Parenting Program at Safe Child” Executive Summary, 2002
Wagner, K.F., “Parenting Education and Child Welfare Recidivism: A Comparative Study of the Nurturing Parenting Program Graduates and Non-Graduates of Fresno County” Abstract, May 2001
Family Service of Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, “Outcome Evaluation of Family Service of Milwaukee Parenting Education Programs” Technical Report, 1997
Broyles, G., Easter, L., Primak, K., Shackford, L., “Nurturing Program Follow-Up Study: Boulder County Department of Social Services Nurturing Program” Research Report, 1992
Primer, V., “Long-Term Impact of the Nurturing Parenting Program: A Comparison of Parenting Attitudes of Abuse and Neglectful Parents Pre-Program, Post-Program, and at One Year Post-Program Follow-Up” Research Report, 1991
Bavolek, S.J., McLaughlin, J.A., Comstock, C.M. “The Nurturing Parenting Programs: A Validated Approach for Reducing Dysfunctional Family Interactions” Final Report NIMH, 1983
1980 - A Comparative Analyses of the Parenting Beliefs of Abusive, Non-Abusive and Foster Parents - Bavolek
1980 - Assessing the Impact of the Nurturing Programs in Treating Abusive Parenting Practices - Bavolek
The Nurturing Parenting Programs are a family-centered trauma-informed initiative designed to build nurturing parenting skills as an alternative to abusive and neglecting parenting and child-rearing practices. The long term goals are to prevent recidivism in families receiving social services, lower the rate of multi-parent teenage pregnancies, reduce the rate of juvenile delinquency and alcohol abuse, and stop the intergenerational cycle of child abuse by teaching positive parenting behaviors.
There are Approximately Thirty Nurturing Programs:
Family Development Resources is committed to meeting the unique needs of families. To this end, approximately 30 programs or program models are available that are designed to meet the family’s educational learning styles and abilities; the family’s culture and language; the ages of the children as well as the ages of the parents.
The first step in implementing the Nurturing Parenting Programs is to select the right program(s) for the families you are serving.
Nurturing Programs: Three Levels of Prevention and Session Dosage
The Nurturing Parenting Programs are designed to meet the family’s needs based on their parenting strengths and weaknesses. Nurturing Parenting Programs are designed for each of the three levels of prevention, commonly recognized in the fields of social work, mental health, and medicine: primary, secondary and tertiary. Dosage is a term used to indicate the number of sessions or length of a program. Dosage is also related to the three levels of prevention.
Nurturing Program Sessions are delivered in Three Program Models
Each of the following program models are effective in the right setting and have their own unique advantages.
Model #1 One-to-one in Home, Office or Classroom
The most common and most effective one-to-one instructional model is offering the parenting lessons in the family’s home. Home-based programs are very common for parents with young children from birth to 5 years. The home-based approach allows the parent educator to observe the family and practice the skills in their home setting.
The instructor’s office or the school classroom doesn’t provide the intimacy that a home setting provides, but can be effective locations for parents who are overwhelmed or easily distracted in group settings. The advantage is the instructor can control the amount of distraction that goes on by meeting in the office or classroom.
Model #2 Group-Based Setting
Group-based settings have several advantages: they are a cost effective way of delivering education in a ratio of one instructor to 10 parents; socialization with other parents meets one of the Protective Factors; parents can passively learn from the questions and issues the other parents bring to the group; a multi-cultural group broadens the parents’ cultural diversity; and in Nurturing Parenting group-based programs, the parents and children meet in separate groups that run concurrently which allow the parents to have the opportunity to engage in learning without the distractions that children often present.
Model #3 Combination Group-Based Program with Home-Based Session
Taking the best characteristics from Models 1 and 2, Model 3 allows socialization with other parents and the opportunity to learn without the distractions of the children being present. Parents are also engaged in home-based sessions to ensure the knowledge and skills being presented in the group sessions are practiced and utilized within their family.
Nurturing Program Lessons are Competency Based
Each lesson offered in the Nurturing Programs has identified competencies the parents need to learn and the instructors need to teach in order for parenting practices to improve. The lesson competencies keep both the parent and the instructor on track making sure learning is occurring. The individual lessons, assessments, evaluations and home practice assignments are all designed to ensure parents are acquiring the stated competencies.
In competency based learning, if the parents do not display an understanding or proper utilization of the information and skills presented in the lesson, the lesson is repeated until the competencies have been learned and mastered.
Nurturing Programs have built-in Assessment and Evaluation Practices
Assessment is a process where Instructors of the Nurturing Programs gather information from families in order to learn more about them. Such data would include information about their current life conditions, their childhood, their relationship with their partner, their relationship with their children, how much they already know about parenting, and the beliefs they have about raising children. Assessments in the Nurturing Programs occur at three times:
Evaluation is a process that measures the degree of acquisition and accuracy of new knowledge and new skills made by the parents. It also measures the effectiveness of the instructor’s abilities to present new concepts and new skills to parents in a manner that allows the parents to increase their understanding of the new concepts and value the utilization of the new skills. Teaching and learning are partners in a relationship of dependency. Neither one works as well alone as they do together.
Assessment and Evaluation data are gathered using valid and reliable self-report inventories and rating scales, as well as observing parent-child interactions. All the data collection is designed to ensure parents are acquiring the knowledge and skills in developing their nurturing parenting competencies.
Pre and Post Program Assessment and Evaluation Measures
The Nurturing Programs incorporate three pre and posttest self-report assessment measures:
Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory (AAPI) is a 40 item, norm-referenced, Likert scale designed to assess the parenting beliefs and practices of adult and adolescent parent and non-parent populations. The AAPI is designed to assess the beliefs for parenting children from infancy to 12 years of age. Responses to the AAPI provide an index of risk for child maltreatment in five parenting practices known to result in child maltreatment. These practices are presented as Constructs:
Responses to the AAPI provide a level of risk for child maltreatment on three levels: High, Moderate and Low. These levels of risk on the AAPI coordinate with the levels of prevention and dosage of lessons presented in the Nurturing Parenting Programs.
Form A and Form B: There are two versions of the AAPI: Version A and Version B. Using alternate forms of the AAPI to gather pre and post program responses reduces the likelihood of increased positive parenting responses based on practice in completing the same inventory multiple times.
Parenting Attitudes about Raising Teens Inventory (PARTI) is a norm- reference Likert scale designed to assess the parenting beliefs and practices of raising adolescent’s ages 12 to 20 years of age. There are two versions of the PARTI: one version for the Parents and one version for the Teens. Data generated from the administration of the PARTI can be useful in several settings:
Responses to the PARTI are entered in the computer and a parenting profile is created reflecting the similarities and differences between the parents and their teens. Responses are presented in five categories:
These responses provide an index and level of conflict and agreement: high, moderate and low levels of conflict or agreement.
The Nurturing Skills Competency Scale (NSCS) is a criterion-referenced scale designed to gather information in six constructs that can have a significant role in family dysfunction including child abuse and neglect and intimate partner violence. The six constructs of the NSCS are:
There are two different versions of the NSCS that are designed for two different populations of parents you might be working with:
As parent educators, we want to make sure the parents are learning the knowledge and skills presented in the program. Gathering information during the program to ensure parents are learning is called process evaluation. Process evaluation occurs at the end of each class session. If the parent has not adequately learned the information and skills, the lesson is repeated. There are three process evaluation measures used in the Nurturing Programs.
Individual Session Evaluations are utilized in group-based programs. Towards the end of each session, parents rate the degree they feel they have learned each of the specific lesson competencies. A rating of 0 means the parent has “not learned the competency at all”; 1 indicates the parent has learned the competency “a little bit”; 2 indicates “pretty good” understanding of the competency; and 3 indicates the parent has a “really good” understanding and grasp of the lesson competency.
Concurrently, the instructors are also rating each parent on how well they learned each of the lesson competencies. Ratings by the instructors occur when parents are demonstrating skills with their child (ren) during Family Nurturing Time, and/or how well they do in explaining concepts during class time.
The Nurturing Parenting Programs are recognized by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), the National Registry for Evidence-based Parenting Programs (NREPP), and a number of state and local agencies as proven programs for the prevention and treatment of child abuse and neglect.
The Departments of the Army and Navy utilize the Nurturing Parenting Program to enhance parenting skills for first time parents in bases worldwide.
Located in our Training Resources Section is a listing of our national training workshops and a listing of trainers in your state. Learn how to have you and your colleagues trained in the Nurturing Parenting Programs!
Website: The California Evidence-Based Clearinghouse for Child Welfare
Nurturing Programs Rated:
Child Welfare Outcomes: Safety and child/family well-being.
Type of Maltreatment: Emotional abuse, Exposure to domestic violence, Physical abuse, and Physical neglect
Target Population: Parents who are at high-risk for, or have substantiated reports of, child maltreatment
Brief Description: (The information in this program outline is provided by the program representative and edited by the CEBC staff.)
The Nurturing Parenting Programs have been rated by the CEBC in the areas of Parent Training and Prevention (Secondary). The Nurturing Parenting Programs are family-based programs utilized for the treatment and prevention of child abuse and neglect. Program sessions are offered in group-based and home-based formats ranging from 12 to 48 sessions. Programs are designed for parents with young children birth to 5 years old, school-aged children 5 to 11 years old, and teens 12 to 18 years old. In addition, programs for children 5 to 11 years old and teens 12 to 18 years old are also offered. Parents and their children meet in separate groups that meet concurrently.
Developed from the known behaviors that contribute to the maltreatment of children, the goals of the curriculum are: 1) to teach age-appropriate expectations and neurological development of children; 2) to develop empathy and self worth in parents and children; 3) to utilize nurturing, non-violent strategies and techniques in establishing family discipline; 4) to empower parents and children to utilize their personal power to make healthy choices; and 5) to increase awareness of self and others in developing positive patterns of communication while establishing healthy, caring relationships.
Download PDF: Logic Model for the Nurturing Parenting Programs
Program Name: Nurturing Parenting Programs
Program Vision: The Nurturing Parenting Programs are built on the premise that the maltreatment of children can be treated and prevented through the systematic application of family based programs designed to replace old and unwanted and hurtful patterns of parenting with newer, healthier patterns of prenatal bonding and neonatal attachment; empathy that positively responds to the needs of children; discipline that maintains the dignity of children; self-awareness and enlightenment of the adults’ own personal childhood; and a sense of empowerment to make good choices that promote personal and community health.
The Nurturing Parenting Programs are evidenced based programs designed for the primary, secondary and tertiary Prevention of child abuse and neglect... Read the entire article.
Bibliography of Related Studies
Integrating Parenting Into Substance Abuse Treatment for Various Populations (2003)
Parenting training for women in residential substance abuse treatment
Nurturing Families Affected by Substance Abuse, Mental Illness & Trauma
History and Development of the Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory (AAPI) and the Nurturing Parenting Programs®.
In 1978, Dr. Bavolek developed the Adolescent Parenting Inventory (API) as a doctoral student at Utah State University. The Adolescent Parenting Inventory (API) was designed to assess the parenting beliefs and practices of abused and non-abused adolescents. Responses to the API would indicate the risk level of pre-parent teens in replicating the abusive and neglecting parenting practices they experienced during the process of growing up.
Critical to the study was identifying the parenting practices that represent child maltreatment. In essence, what are the practices of child abuse and neglect? Five specific behaviors were identified and validated from the on-going research with abused and non-abused teens. The constructs of child maltreatment are:
The research findings of the study indicated that teens with verified histories of abuse and neglect did indeed express significantly (P <.001) more abusive parenting beliefs in all five constructs than teens without verified histories of maltreatment. Gender also indicated significant (P < .001) differences. Males as a population expressed more abusive parenting practices than females.
Research studies continued in assessing risk levels of adult and teen parent populations. Teen parents and adult parents charged with child abuse and/or neglect did indeed express significantly (P<.001) more abusive parenting beliefs and practices than adult and teen parents without verified charges of maltreatment.
Today, the Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory (AAPI-2) is widely utilized both nationally and internationally, having assessed nearly 3 million adults and teens since its initial development in 1978.
In 1980, the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) funded a half-million dollar, six state research project to Dr. Stephen Bavolek while he was at the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire. The purpose of the research was to develop and validate a proven program to treat and prevent child abuse and neglect. The grant was awarded to Dr. Bavolek for his years of research in developing and validating the Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory (AAPI-2).
The Nurturing Parenting Program® (NPP) was developed and validated in 1983 utilizing the five parenting constructs of the AAPI to form the foundation of the lessons of the Nurturing Parenting Program®. In this manner, the AAPI provided the level of risk assessment and the Nurturing Parenting Program® provided the treatment. The NIMH study showed remarkable and significant changes in positive family interactions. Findings of the three year project included:
Important to recognize that in the mid-1980s, no valid or published parenting programs were available for families charged with child maltreatment. The Nurturing Parenting Program® was the first family-based program designed specifically for parents who were identified as abusive and/or neglecting of their children (treatment) or who were high risk for child maltreatment (prevention/intervention).
Based on the findings of the initial NIMH study, the Nurturing Parenting Program® for School Age Children was recognized by the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP), the Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (CSAP), and Substance Abuse, Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), and other government and state agencies as an evidence-based program; the only parenting program for the treatment of child abuse and neglect.
In November 2000,OJJDPdevoted an entire issue of their Newsletter to the quality of the Nurturing Parenting Program as a proven treatment program. Years later, the California Evidence Based Clearinghouse (CEBC) also recognized the research and findings of the Nurturing Parenting Programs® as evidence-based programs.
The National Registry of Evidence-based Programs and Practices (NREPP) developed as a branch of SAMHSA also recognized the research findings and the effectiveness of the Nurturing Programs® as evidence-based programs. Over the years, thirty-five additional programs and studies have been conducted. The results of these studies are available on line attesting to the effectiveness of the Nurturing Parenting Programs®. Links are provided to NREPP web site and to the Summary Research Report of the Nurturing Programs, and to the CEBC web site.
The field of parenting education, particularly as it pertains to providing parenting education to families charged with child abuse and neglect, is witnessing a dramatic change in what is being recognized as an evidence-based program.In conducting research to support the effectiveness of a program, there are essentially two categories of research design that are acceptable in the field: Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research. The design most used in experimental studies is called Randomized Control Trial (RCT).
A book written in the 1960s by Donald T. Campbell and Julian C. Stanley called Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research remains a classic in the field. According to Stanley and Campbell, RCTs are best used to test the efficacy or effectiveness of various types of medical interventions within a patient population. The key feature of the RCT is subjects for the study are assessed for eligibly and recruitment. Assessment of study subjects is an attempt to control for differences. After each subject is assessed, those who are accepted for suitability are randomly assigned to two groups:
Quasi-experimental research designs have a history of extensive use in social services. The most common quasi-experimental research designs are simple pre-posttest, posttest only, pre-posttest comparison groups, and pre-posttest comparison groups with longitudinal follow up. All four of these models are very acceptable research designs, especially when measuring the effectiveness of a treatment, or parenting program.
The California Evidence Based Clearinghouse (CEBC) along with the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) are two organizations that have changed their criteria for what constitutes “strong evidence supporting the efficacy of a program.” Both have adopted the RCT as their primary research model and their criteria for receiving the highest possible rating. CEBC has also included that the study’s results be published in a peer review journal with a time contingent of two years which helps determine if the study is acceptable for evidence based recognition.
Prior to this change, the Nurturing Parenting Programs® were highly rated, evidence-based programs for families receiving services in Child Welfare. After the adoption of the RCT model as evidence of programs effectiveness the Nurturing Program for Parents and their Infants, Toddlers and Preschoolers® is no longer afforded that designation.
RCT is reserved for trials that contain control groups in which groups receiving the experimental treatment are compared with control groups receiving no treatment. Withholding services from families who are mandated by the courts to complete parent education is ethically inappropriate, in addition to jeopardizing the health and lives of children.
In 1980-83 when the first Nurturing Parenting Program® was developed and validated, there were no proven and published programs for families charged with child maltreatment. In essence, there was nothing to compare the results of families attending the Nurturing Program®. Families involved with Social Services for child maltreatment were not receiving parenting education from a validated, evidence-based parenting program. There were not any validated parenting programs on the market. A decision was made to run a quasi-experimental pre-posttest, longitudinal research design instead to test the effectiveness of the Nurturing Program®. The results were phenomenal.
Since the validation for the first Nurturing Parenting Program for Parents and their School age Children®, twenty additional Nurturing Programs have been developed and validated using the pre-posttest longitudinal follow-up quasi-experimental design. See the NPP validation report.
In the pre-posttest, longitudinal design research model, the criteria for effectiveness are the proven cessation of child maltreatment and the elimination of recidivism. It did not matter if the NPP was any better than no program if the child abuse continued. In essence, the effectiveness of the NPP was measured against the practices of maltreatment. Were the practices of maltreatment replaced with the practices of Nurturing Parenting? And what was the recidivism rate among parent(s) completing the NPP? The stated goal was a recidivism rate of 0. The outcome was a recidivism rate of 9%. At the time, the recidivism rate among families completing treatment for child abuse was between 25% to 47%.
Family Development Resources has been providing cost-effective, validated approaches to help treat and prevent child abuse and neglect for over 35 years. Families learn new attitudes and skills that reduce dysfunction in families, with follow-up studies indicating low rates of recidivism. The Nurturing Programs® have and will continue to make a significant contribution to the overall health and functioning of families.
The ratings remain very high for the Infant, Toddler and Preschooler Program as well as all the Nurturing Programs® as published in the National Registry of Evidence Based Programs and Practices (NREPP), the US Department for Defense and the hundreds of service providing agencies across the country.
Family Development Resources at 800.688.5822 or email us at fdr@nurturingparenting.com
Randomized Controlled Trial is a controlled trial study in which participants are assigned to a study group. In a randomized controlled trial, participants are assigned to treatment conditions at random. Procedures are controlled to ensure that all participants in all study groups are treated the same except for the factor that is unique to their group. The unique factor is the type of intervention they receive.
The primary goal of conducting an RCT is to test whether an intervention works by comparing it to a control condition, usually either no intervention or an alternative intervention.
Cherry, K, Cooper, C, Cross-Hemmer, A, Duong, T, Furrer, C, Green, B, Rockhill, A, Rodgers, A, "Executive Summary: Oregon's IV-E Waiver Demonstration Project." Relationship-Based Visitation & Parent Mentor Evaluations. Center for the Improvement of Child and Family Services Portland State University. December 2015
Cherry, K, Cooper, C, Cross-Hemmer, A, Duong, T, Furrer, C, Green, B, Rockhill, A, Rodgers, A, "Oregon's IV-E Waiver Demonstration Project: Final Evaluation Report." Relationship-Based Visitation & Parent Mentor Evaluations. Center for the Improvement of Child and Family Services Portland State University. December 2015
Illinois Birth Through Three Waiver: "Developmentally Informed Child and Family Interventions IB3." Semiannual Progress Report. Prepared for the Children's Bureau, Submitted by the Illinois Department of Children and Family Services. July 31, 2015
Pre-Post is essentially administering the AAPI and NSCS before a Nurturing Parenting Program begins and when it ends to measure statistically significant gains made by the parents. This is a basic research design.
Geoffrey Zehnacker, B.A., Sean E. Brotherson, Ph.D., & Amy Tichy, B.A. North Dakota State University – Fargo, ND. “Nurturing Parenting Program in North Dakota. Project Overview and Year-End Report for 2016-2017.” March 2018
Daire, Andrew P., Greenridge, Wendy L., The University of Central Florida “A Cross Cultural Investigation of the Nurturing Father’s Program Outcomes.”
Daire, Andrew P., Greenridge, Wendy L., Johnson, Nicola, The University of Central Florida “Parental Attitudes and Behaviors of Participants in the Nurturing Father’s Program.” 2014
Bavolek, S., Keene, R., Miranda, G., Radcliff, J. Prevention and Early Intervention Component of Imperial County, “Implementation of the Nurturing Parenting Programs with Latino Families in Imperial County, California.” 3 year report. June 2009 - July 2012. January 4, 2013
International Rescue Committee, Research and Validation, “Family based intervention against child abuse and neglect for young parents involved in a youth and livelihoods program in Liberia: A Pilot project to build evidence around the potential for parenting skills training to protect children from abuse, neglect and exploitation.” International Rescue Committee. www.rescue.org. New York, NY. November 2011
Montañez, M., Devall, E., VanLeeuwen, D., “Social Capital: Strengthening Mexican-American Families Through Parenting Education” Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences, 102, NO. 3, 2010
Bavolek, S.J., "Nurturing the Families of Hawaii: Program to Build Nurturing Parenting Skills for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect." Final Report for FY 2008-09 submitted to Department of Human Services, Honolulu, HI. August, 2009
Bavolek, S.J., "Nurturing the Families of Hawaii: Three Year Program to Build Nurturing Parenting Skills for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect." Final Report for FY 2005-08 submitted to the Department of Human Services, HI. February, 2009
Houston, N., "Evaluation of a Family-Centered Parenting Program for Culturally Diverse High-Risk Families." Nova Southeastern University. January, 2008
Devall, E., “Positive Parenting for High-Risk Families.” Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences, 96(4), 2004
Welinske, D., “Solano County California Family Strengthening Program” Final Report, 2003
Matlak, S., “A quantitative Analysis of Pikes Peak Family Connections Nurturing Parenting Program” Research Report, 2003
Vespo, J.E., Capece, D., Behforooz, B., “Effects of the Nurturing Curriculum (Developing Nurturing Skills K-12 School-Based Curricula®) on Social, Emotional, and Academic Behaviors in Kindergarten Classrooms” Abstract, 2002
Cowen, P.S., “Effectiveness of a Parent Education Intervention for At-Risk Families.” Journal of the Society for Pediatric Nursing, 6 (2), 73-82, 2001
Baxter, R. & Chara, K., “The Nurturing Parenting Program: Evidence for the Success of a Parenting Program” Research Report, 1995
Alvy, K. & Steele, M., “AT&T sponsored Nurturing Parenting Program for Teen Parents” Research Report, 1992
Bavolek, S.J., Henderson, H.L., and Shultz, B.B., “Reducing Chronic Neglect in Utah” Research Report, 1987
Bavolek, S.J., “Building Nurturing Parenting Skills in Teen Parents: A Validation of the Nurturing Program for Teen Parents” Research Report, 1987
Bavolek, S.J., “Validation of the Nurturing Program for Parents and Adolescents: Building Nurturing Interactions in Families Experiencing Parent-Adolescent Conflict” Research Report, Winter 1987
Comparative studies compares the effectiveness of the Nurturing Parenting Program with another program to determine which program received better gains.
Vespo, J.E., Capece, D., Behforooz, B, “Effects of the Nurturing Curriculum on Social, Emotional, and Academic Behaviors in Kindergarten Classrooms” Journal of Research in Childhood Education 2006, Vol. 20, No. 4
Bavolek, S.J., Keene, R., Weikert, P., “The Florida Study: A Comparative Examination of the Effectiveness of the Nurturing Parenting Programs” Research Report, 2005
Pre-Post with Longitudinal Follow-Up assesses whether the gains made at posttest have been maintained by either administering a third AAPI at test for differences from posttest to longitudinal testing usually anywhere from 6 months to 2 years after the last class ended.
The key to this model is to determine if families have been re-charged with Child Abuse or Neglect since they ended their program. The goal of Nurturing Parenting Program is to stop the re-abuse of children in families who completed the Nurturing Parenting Program.
Birth & Beyond Home Visitation Program, "AmeriCorps Impact Evaluation." Sacramento Family Support Collaborative, December 2015.
Brock, Donna-Jean P., Marek, Lydia I., Matteo-Kerney, Cheryl, Bagby, Tammy, “Open Groups: Adaptations in Implementing a Parent Training Program” 2013.
Birth & Beyond Home Visitation Program, Nurturing Parenting Program Child Protective Services, Outcomes Report, July 2010 through June 2013, “The 2010-2013 Outcomes Study for the Birth & Beyond Program has retained the same methodology used each year, with variations and enhancements as resources permitted.” Family Support Collaborative. Child Abuse Prevention Council of Sacramento, North Highlands, Ca. October 2013. Submitted by: LPC Consulting Associates, Inc., Sacraments Ca. 95811
Maher, E. J., Marcynyszyn, L. A., Corwin, T. W., & Hodnett, R. (2011). Dosage matters: The relationship between participation in the Nurturing Parenting Program for Infants, Toddlers, and Preschoolers and subsequent child maltreatment. Children and Youth Services Review, 33, 1426-1434. DOI: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2011.04.014
Maher, E. J., Corwin, T. W., Hodnett, R., & Faulk, K. (in-press). A cost-savings analysis of a statewide parenting education program in child welfare. Research on Social Work Practice.
Hodnett, R.H., Faulk, K., Dellinger, A,, Maher, E, Evaluation of the Statewide Implementation of a Parent Education Program in Louisiana’s Child Welfare Agency, 2009
Palusci, V.J., Crum, P., Bliss, R. & Bavolek, S.J., Changes in Parenting Attitudes and Knowledge Among Inmates and Other At-Risk Populations After a Family Nurturing Program, Children and Youth Services Review 2007, doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2007.06.006
Matteo-Kerney, C., Benjamin, S. “Rural Virginia Family Nurturing Project: Five Year Evaluation Results”, Abstract 2003
Safe Child, Raleigh NC, “An Evaluation of the Nurturing Parenting Program at Safe Child” Executive Summary, 2002
Wagner, K.F., “Parenting Education and Child Welfare Recidivism: A Comparative Study of the Nurturing Parenting Program Graduates and Non-Graduates of Fresno County” Abstract, May 2001
Family Service of Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, “Outcome Evaluation of Family Service of Milwaukee Parenting Education Programs” Technical Report, 1997
Broyles, G., Easter, L., Primak, K., Shackford, L., “Nurturing Program Follow-Up Study: Boulder County Department of Social Services Nurturing Program” Research Report, 1992
Primer, V., “Long-Term Impact of the Nurturing Parenting Program: A Comparison of Parenting Attitudes of Abuse and Neglectful Parents Pre-Program, Post-Program, and at One Year Post-Program Follow-Up” Research Report, 1991
Bavolek, S.J., McLaughlin, J.A., Comstock, C.M. “The Nurturing Parenting Programs: A Validated Approach for Reducing Dysfunctional Family Interactions” Final Report NIMH, 1983
1980 - A Comparative Analyses of the Parenting Beliefs of Abusive, Non-Abusive and Foster Parents - Bavolek
1980 - Assessing the Impact of the Nurturing Programs in Treating Abusive Parenting Practices - Bavolek
The AAPI-2 is an inventory designed to assess the parenting and child rearing attitudes of adult and adolescent parent and pre-parent populations. Based on the known parenting and child rearing behaviors of abusive parents, responses to the inventory provide an index of risk for practicing behaviors known to be attributable to child abuse and neglect.
Valid and Reliable Inventories used to Assess Parenting Attitudes, Knowledge and History.
The Benefits of Assessment
The Levels of Assessment
Types of Assessment
Sub-Scales - Responses to the AAPI-2 provide an index of risk in five specific parenting and child rearing behaviors:
Intended Populations - Adult parent and pre-parent populations as well as adolescent parent and pre-parent populations as young as 13 years old.
Reading Level - The AAPI-2 has an assessed fifth grade reading level.
Validity and Reliability - The AAPI-2, like its predecessor the AAPI, is a validated and reliable inventory used to assess parenting attitudes. Over 20 years of research with the AAPI indicate:
Benefits of AAPI-2 OnLine (AssessingParenting.com)
Available in English, Spanish, Kreyol, Korean, Arabic
Description - The AAPI-2 is an inventory designed to assess the parenting and child rearing attitudes of adult and adolescent parent and pre-parent populations. Based on the known parenting and child rearing behaviors of abusive parents, responses to the inventory provide an index of risk for practicing behaviors known to be attributable to child abuse and neglect. The AAPI-2 is the revised and re-normed version of the original AAPI first developed in 1979.
Sub-Scales - Responses to the AAPI-2 provide an index of risk in five specific parenting and child rearing behaviors:
Intended Populations - Both adult parent and pre-parent populations as well as adolescent parent and pre-parent populations. Adolescents as young as 13 years old can respond to the AAPI-2.
Forms and Items - There are two forms of the AAPI-2 – Form A and Form B. Each inventory has 40 different items presented in a five-point Likert scale from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.
Administration - The AAPI-2 takes approximately 20 minutes to be administered. It can be administered in a small group setting or individually. Individuals circle the response (SA = Strong Agree; A = Agree; U = Uncertain; D = Disagree; SD = Strongly Disagree) they feel best represents their parenting attitudes.
Reading Level - The AAPI-2 has an assessed fifth grade reading level. The AAPI-2 can be read orally to non-readers.
Scoring - Responses to the items of the AAPI-2 each carry a numerical value of 1 to 5 determined by placing the plastic scoring stencil over the test form. The numerical values are recorded on the AAPI-2 Profile Worksheet for each of the five subscales.
The five subscales total raw scores are calculated by adding the numerical values. Raw score totals for each subscale are converted into standard scores forming the norm tables of the AAPI. The standard scores are plotted on the AAPI-2 Parenting Profile providing an index of risk for abusive and/or neglecting behaviors.
Norm Tables - Norm tables are available for parent and adolescent parent and adolescent non-parent populations.
Validity and Reliability - The AAPI-2 , like its predecessor the AAPI, is a validated and reliable inventory used to assess parenting attitudes. Over 20 years of research with the AAPI indicate:
1980 - A Comparative Analyses of the Parenting Beliefs of Abusive, Non-Abusive and Foster Parents - Bavolek
1980 - Assessing the Impact of the Nurturing Programs in Treating Abusive Parenting Practices - Bavolek
